What Risk Factors Predict Bone Density, Bone Loss, and Fractures?
Several factors are consistently associated with increased risks of low bone density and fractures in postmenopausal women, including increasing age, white race, low weight or weight loss, nonuse of estrogen replacement, history of previous fracture, family history of fracture, history of falls, and low scores on one or more measures of physical activity or function. Other factors are less consistent predictors across studies, but also have significant associations with bone density and fractures. These include smoking, alcohol use, caffeine use, low calcium and vitamin D intake, and use of certain drugs. Additional risk factors are important in specific studies. The relative risks of several risk factors are comparable to that of a 1 standard deviation difference in bone density. Predictors for low bone density are similar to those for fracture except for those specifically related to falls. Most of the strongest risk factors are consistently related to outcomes in different racial an
