The story of these legal complications leads to the more complex question of their ethnic identity today, Indians or not Indians?
Today, the Black Seminoles are sometimes describedand sometimes describe themselvesas black Indians. The concept of black Indians has historical roots in early America and was adopted by individual Black Seminoles (who often just called themselves “Seminoles”) and others throughout the twentieth century. Among older Black Seminoles, for example, there remains a strong traditional sense of not being “African American.” The concept of black Indianness is rooted in the historical reality that some African Americans and Native Americans intermarried, alsoand this is more problematic historicallyin the belief that some Africans were present on the North American continent before the arrival of Columbus. When applied currently in the Seminole case, the concept has given rise to a major controversy over whether or not the Oklahoma Black Seminoles (known as the Seminole Freedmen) are culturally or legally members of the Seminole tribe. Intercommunal debates over Seminoleness have surfaced peri
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