Can Cognitive Abilities Be Improved?
Because expressed intelligence must be drawn out from innate ability, through cultural experiences, it is natural to ask whether certain cultural experiences, including education, can improve intelligence. Some social programs have had this as an explicit goal. It is also natural to ask whether societies can improve intelligence by altering the physical environment?for instance, through programs to improve nutrition or the family environment. Finally, whether or not intelligence, as measured by tests, is subject to improvement, there remains the question of whether cognitive competence can be manipulated. These questions have been looked at in three ways: in statistical and historical comparisons of cultures, from within our own culture’s experience and from the viewpoint of statistical and theoretical biology. They are at the core of the debate reignited by Herrnstein and Murray, who argue that competence in today’s workplace is determined by IQ, that IQ is determined by inheritance a
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